隨著分子人類學的發展與應用,分子人類學在探索人類起源、人群遷徙演化、人群間的親緣關係,以及民族學、歷史等方面發揮著越來越大的作用。
下面是分子人類學關於現代人非洲起源論的研究歷程
1、
1987年,在英國Nature《自然》週刊上刊登了美國加州大學三位分子生物學家M. Stoneking、R. L. Cann)、A. C. Wilson的論文Mi tochondrial DNA and human evolution《線粒體DNA與人類進化》,他們選擇了祖先來自非洲、歐洲、亞洲、中東,以及巴布亞紐幾內亞和澳洲土著共147名婦女,提取了她們mtDNA,進行基因測序分析,根據分析結果繪製出一個系統樹。由此推測所有樣本的mtDNA可以將所有現代人最近追溯到大約20萬年(上下限29-14萬的中值)前生活在非洲的一位婦女。她就是今天地球上各個角落的人的共同“祖母”。然後,又根據mtDNA發生突變的速率計算出非洲人群分化出世界其他人群的大致時間,為大約18萬~9萬年,平均約13萬年前。認為在大約13萬年前,這個“祖母”的一群后裔離開了他們的家園非洲,向世界各地遷徙擴散,並逐漸取代了生活在當地的土著居民--直立人的後裔早期智人,而在世界各地定居下來,逐漸演化發展成現在的我們,這就是著名的現代人起源的“夏娃假說”。
2、
2000年美國斯坦福大學P. A. Underhill等人,利用變性高效液相層析技術,分析得出218個Y染色體非重組區位點構成的131個Y單倍型,對全球具有代表性的1062個男性進行研究,並根據分析結果繪製出一個系統樹。Y-DNA系統樹展示的結果與mtDNA系統樹的結果非常相似。
歐洲和亞洲等世界其他現代人群都起源於非洲,而美洲和澳洲現代人群又都起源於亞洲人群。這就是與“夏娃假說”相互應徵的“亞當假說"。同樣,根據Y-DNA發生突變的速率計算出非洲人群分化出世界其他人群的大致時間在14萬~4萬年,平均約6萬年前。
1997年7月,美國Science(《科學》)週刊發表了一篇論文,引起學術界一片譁然。德國慕尼黑大學的分子生物學家M. Krings等,對德國杜塞爾多夫城的尼安德特峽谷發現的距今大約6萬年左右的尼安德特人化石,進行了mtDNA抽提和PCR擴增,並對提取DNA進行了測序。
發現尼人的mtDNA序列中有12 個片斷與現代人類的完全不同,尼人的mtDNA處在現代人類的變異範圍之外,推算得出的分化時間在30萬年以上。而歷史上尼人和現代人的並存歷史在10萬年以內,如果這兩個人種之間有直接傳承關係,其差異應該不超過10萬年。由此推測,尼人不可能是現代人類的直系祖先,他們只成為人類演化史上的一個旁支。這一研究成果支援“現代人起源於非洲的假說" 。
這一科學發現被評為1997年世界十大科技成就之一。
3,
其後,又有科學家成功地從出土於高加索和克羅埃西亞的尼安德特人化石中提取了mtDNA序列,同樣得出尼人與現代人沒有直系遺傳聯絡的結論。
1998年,褚嘉祐等十四位中國學者在Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Sates of America, PNAS《美國科學院學報》 上發表了一篇論文,他們利用30個常染色體微衛星位點(由2-6個鹼基重複單位構成的DNA序列),分析了包括中國漢族和少數民族在內的南北方28個東亞人群的遺傳結構,結果支援現代中國人也起源於非洲的假說。
但是由於樣本量較少、群體代表性不強,且微衛星位點突變率較高,褚嘉祐等人當年的工作對證明東亞人群起源於非洲的觀點還不十分令人信服。
4,
1999年,宿兵等學者對包括中國各省份的漢族和少數民族,以及東北亞、東南亞、非洲、美洲和大洋洲總共925個個體的不同人群,利用19個Y-SNP (Y染色體單核苷酸多型位點)構成的一組Y染色體單倍型,系統研究了包括中國各人群在內的現代東亞人的起源和遷徙。
結果顯示包括中國各人群在內的所有現代東亞人群的Y-SNP單倍型均來自較晚發生的突變,而更早的型別僅存在於非洲。因此認為,現代東亞人全部來自於非洲的某個古代型別,並有可能完全取代了生活在當地的原土著居民,而成為該地區的新居民。
經過漫長跋涉由非洲遷徙而來的這些現代人祖先,是完全取代了生活在東亞大陸上的原土著居民,還是與當地的土著居民有著某些程度的融合?
這個問題令科學家興趣濃厚。他們基於這樣一個假設:"即從非洲遷徙而來的現代人群並沒有完全取代當地土著居民,當地土著居民也可能有少量的基因遺傳下來",透過實驗,擴大東亞地區的樣本量,來看這些當地土著居民的可能貢獻率或不完全取代的可能性有多少?這些遺留下來的基因又有可能保留在現代哪些人群中?
2001年,柯越海等人對來自中國各地區近12 000份男性隨機樣本進行了M89、M130和YAP三個Y染色體單倍型的分型研究。所選擇的三個Y染色體非重組區的突變型M89、M130 和YAP均來自另一個Y染色體單倍型M168。M168突變型是人類走出非洲並擴散到非洲以外其他地區的代表性突變位點,它是所有非洲以外人群Y染色體的最近的共同祖先,所以M168是現代人類單一起源於非洲的最直接證據,在除非洲以外的其他地區沒有發現一例個體具有比M168更古老的突變型。該項研究結果顯示萬份樣品無一例外具有M89、M130 和YAP三種突變型之一,並沒有發現個體攜帶有以上三種Y-SNP突變型之外的型別,也沒有發現同時具有M89、M130 和YAP突變中任意兩個以上突變的個體,這一結果與非洲以外的世界其他地區的基因型分型結果是一致的。
在檢測的所有中國12 000份樣品中全部都攜帶有來自非洲的M168突變型的“遺傳痕跡”,因此,Y染色體的證據並不支援中國現代人獨立起源的假說,而支援包括中國人在內的東亞現代人起源於非洲的假說。
之後,近年來又有一些遺傳學研究,特別是透過對Y染色體、線粒體DNA、常染色體及單核苷酸多型性等多種遺傳標記和分型手段對東亞人群的廣泛研究,結果都證明東亞現代人具有共同的非洲起源特徵。透過對Y-DNA單倍型的變異速率推算出大致在距今約6萬~1.8萬年前,最早的一批走出非洲的現代人經由東南亞地區最先進入東亞的南方,隨著東亞冰川期的結束,逐漸北上擴散至東亞大陸。而另外一支則沿著東南沿海從東南亞大陸向東逐漸進入太平洋群島。
。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。
下面列一些相關圖片資料:
資料背景:
The research course of modern man's theory of African origin
With the development and application of molecular anthropology, molecular anthropology is playing a more and more important role in exploring human origin, population migration and evolution, genetic relationship between populations, ethnology, history and so on.
The research process of molecular anthropology on the origin of modern people in Africa
1、
In 1987, the paper "mitochondrial DNA and human evolution" by three molecular biologists M. stoneking, R. L. cann) and A. C. Wilson from the University of California was published in the British weekly nature. They selected 147 women whose ancestors came from Africa, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, Papua New Guinea and Australia, Their mtDNA was extracted and analyzed by gene sequencing, and a system tree was drawn according to the analysis results. Therefore, it is speculated that the mtDNA of all samples can trace all modern people to a woman living in Africa about 200000 year
In 1999, Scholars such as Su Bing systematically studied the origin and migration of modern East Asians, including various populations of modern East Asians, including various groups of modern East Asians, including various populations of 925 individuals in Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas and Oceania, using a set of Y-SNPs (Y chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism sites) composed of 19 Y-SNPs (Y chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism sites).
The results showed that the haplotype of Y-SNP in all modern East Asian populations, including various populations in China, came from mutations that occurred later, while earlier types existed only in Africa.Therefore, it is believed that modern East Asians all originated from an ancient type in Africa, and may have completely replaced the original indigenous people living in the area and became the new inhabitants of the region.
Did the ancestors of these modern humans, who migrated from Africa after a long journey, completely replace the original indigenous peoples living on the East Asian continent, or did they have some degree of integration with the local indigenous peoples?
This question is of great interest to scientists.Based on the assumption that "modern populations migrating from Africa have not completely replaced local indigenous peoples, and local indigenous peoples may also have a small amount of genetic inheritance", through experiments, expanding the sample size in East Asia, what is the probability of possible contribution or incomplete replacement of these local indigenous peoples?
Which modern populations are likely to retain these legacy genes?
This question is of great interest to scientists.Based on the assumption that "modern populations migrating from Africa have not completely replaced local indigenous peoples, and local indigenous peoples may also have a small amount of genetic inheritance", through experiments, expanding the sample size in East Asia, what is the probability of possible contribution or incomplete replacement of these local indigenous peoples?
Which modern populations are likely to retain these legacy genes?
In 2001, Ke Yuehai et al. conducted a classification study of the three Y chromosome haplotypes of M89, M130 and YAP on nearly 12,000 male random samples from various regions in China.The three mutant M89, M130, and YAP of the non-recombinant region of the Y chromosome selected were all from another Y chromosome haploid M168.M168 mutant is a representative mutation site where humans have left Africa and spread to other regions outside Africa, and it is the most recent common ancestor of the Y chromosome in all populations outside Africa, so M168 is the most direct evidence of a single modern human origin in Africa, and no individual with a mutant type older than M168 has been found in other regions except Africa.The results of the study showed that the 10,000 samples had one of the three mutants M89, M130 and YAP without exception, and did not find individuals carrying a type other than the above three Y-SNP mutations, nor did they find individuals with any two or more mutations in the M89, M130 and YAP mutations, which was consistent with the genotype typing results in other parts of the world outside Africa.
All 12,000 Chinese samples tested carried "genetic traces" of the M168 mutant from Africa, so the evidence for the Y chromosome does not support the hypothesis of independent origin of modern Chinese humans, but supports the origin of east Asian modern humans, including Chinese
現在,一些人類學愛好者,沒有接觸過分子人類學,仍然利用體質人類學理論反駁非洲起源論,甚至出於民粹主義的感情,排斥非洲起源論,特發以上資料,歡迎友好探討,轉發。